Read : Foundations of Computing: From the Abacus to the Analytical Engine

Source Details

Video Title:

Early Computing: Crash Course Computer Science #1

Channel/Author:

CrashCourse

Publication Date:

February 15, 2017

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Course Reading: Computing's Evolution

Introduction

This reading summarizes the key themes and historical developments in early computing. It traces the human need for computation from ancient times to the dawn of the electronic age, highlighting the continuous drive for efficiency, accuracy, and the amplification of our mental abilities.

I. The Pervasive Impact of Computing

Computing is the lifeblood of today’s world, profoundly transforming nearly every aspect of our lives.

• Ubiquitous Integration: Computers are no longer confined to specialized fields but are integral to daily existence.

  "If they were to suddenly turn off, all at once, the power grid would shut down, cars would crash, planes would fall, water treatment plants would stop, stock markets would freeze, trucks with food wouldn’t know where to deliver, and employees wouldn’t get paid."

• Driving the "Electronic Age": Computing technology is a transformative force akin to the Industrial Revolution, ushering in the "Electronic Age." This is evident in automated farming, medical equipment, global telecommunications, and new frontiers like Virtual Reality and Self-Driving Cars.
• A Technology in Infancy: Despite its widespread impact, humanity's "arguably greatest invention is just in its infancy, with its biggest impacts yet to come."

II. The Enduring Need for Computation and Early Devices

The need for computation predates electronic computers, arising from the increasing complexity of human society and the limitations of individual mental capacity.

• Addressing Societal Scale: The earliest computing devices emerged to handle data beyond what a single person could manage. For instance, the abacus was created when the scale of society grew too large for one person to track thousands of people or tens of thousands of cattle.
• The Abacus (c. 2500 BCE): This Mesopotamian invention is the earliest recognized device for computing. It served as a hand-operated calculator and, crucially, it stores the current state of the computation, much like a modern hard drive.
• Diverse Mechanical Aids: Over millennia, humans developed various clever computing devices:
  • Astrolabe: Enabled ships to calculate their latitude at sea.
  • Slide Rule: Assisted with multiplication and division.
  • Clocks: Used for calculations beyond time, including sunrise, tides, and positions of celestial bodies.
• Amplifying Mental Abilities: A recurring theme is that these devices lowered the barrier to entry for complex tasks and amplified our mental abilities. As Charles Babbage noted:

  "At each increase of knowledge, as well as on the contrivance of every new tool, human labour becomes abridged."

III. The Evolution of the "Computer" Concept

The term "computer" initially referred to a human occupation before shifting to describe machines.

• "Computer" as a Job Title (1613): The earliest documented use of the word "computer" referred to a person who performed calculations. This definition persisted until the late 1800s.
• The Shift to Machines: The meaning of "computer" began to refer to devices in the late 19th century as mechanical calculators became more prominent.

IV. Mechanical Calculators and the Quest for Automation

Innovations in mechanical calculators laid the groundwork for automated computation, addressing the slow and error-prone nature of manual calculations.

• Leibniz's Step Reckoner (1694): Built by Gottfried Leibniz, this machine was a significant advancement. Leibniz believed "it is beneath the dignity of excellent men to waste their time in calculation." The Step Reckoner was the first machine that could perform all four basic arithmetic operations, and its design influenced calculators for centuries.
• Limitations and the Need for Pre-Computed Tables: Early hand-crafted machines were expensive and inaccessible to most. Since real-world problems required many steps, teams of "human computers" were often employed to create pre-computed tables (e.g., "Range Tables" for artillery) to speed up critical calculations.

V. Charles Babbage and the Dawn of General-Purpose Computing

Charles Babbage's visionary designs marked a turning point from specialized calculators toward general-purpose computers.

• The Difference Engine (1822 onwards): Babbage proposed this complex mechanical device to approximate polynomials. Though never fully built in his time, a working model constructed in 1991 proved its design was sound.
• The Analytical Engine: This was Babbage's even more ambitious design for a general-purpose computer. It could be given data, run operations in sequence, had memory, and even a primitive printer. Its concept of an "automatic computer" that could guide itself through a series of operations foreshadowed modern computer programs.
• Ada Lovelace, The First Programmer: English mathematician Ada Lovelace wrote hypothetical programs for the Analytical Engine. She recognized its vast potential, leading her to be considered the world’s first programmer.
• "Father of Computing": Babbage's profound ideas inspired the first generation of computer scientists, solidifying his legacy as the "father of computing."

VI. The Rise of Electro-Mechanical Computing and IBM

The integration of electricity with mechanical systems, driven by practical demands, led to the commercialization of computing.

• The US Census Problem (1890): The booming US population made manual census compilation unsustainable. The 1880 census took seven years to complete; the 1890 census was projected to take thirteen.
• Herman Hollerith's Tabulating Machine: Herman Hollerith's electro-mechanical machine solved the crisis. It used punch cards to represent data. When metal pins passed through the holes, they completed an electrical circuit, automatically advancing mechanical counters.
• Efficiency and Impact: Hollerith's machine was roughly 10 times faster than manual methods, completing the 1890 census in just two and a half years and saving the government millions.
• Commercialization and IBM: This success led businesses to adopt "business machines" for accounting, inventory, and other tasks. Hollerith founded a company that, through mergers, would later become The International Business Machines Corporation, or IBM.

Conclusion

The journey of computing began with simple tools to augment human calculation, evolved through complex mechanical designs, and culminated in the visionary concepts of general-purpose machines. The increasing demands of society, from record-keeping to military precision, spurred constant innovation, setting the stage for the digital revolution that continues to shape our world.